Thursday, February 10, 2011

February 15 Assignment

The reading for this class is:

Röhrig Assunçao, Matthias. Capoeira: The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art. (London and New York: Routledge, 2006), 32-66

The entire book is on Blackboard - please just read pp. 32-66 (I saw from your comments that some foyou suffered through my whole chapter instead of reading just the specified pages...)

The question:
How does the specific case of the capoeira dance/fight/game/music show the kinds of syncretism between African cultural groups and/or between African descendants and others that we've been talking about in the class? As a bonus question (which you can get to if you have the space in your response), how does capoeira exemplify the kinds of ethics and sociality that we talked about today?

You can see (and hear) that last question all over capoeira, as in the video below, a capoeira game between Mestre Cobra Mansa (without bandanna) and Mestre Jogo de Dentro (bandanna):

41 comments:

  1. Elizabeth Humphrey
    Black Musics In Latin America
    Professor Birenbaum Quintero

    Capoeira can be seen as the culmination of various characteristics from different African groups. Even the origin of capoeira itself cannot be traced to one specific cultural group, but is more of a creole development (Assunção 31). Most of the characteristics found in capoeira, such as the emphasis on dance, music and practice were also found in some of the African religions present at the time, like candomblé for example. Batuque was also a form of syncretism that could be found among African descendants. This generic term was used to describe the dancing and singing that occurred among the natives. Combat games, like capoeira, consisted of the same layout as did batuque: dancing in a circle, call and response, collective participation, and others (Assunção 41).
    Capoeira also exemplifies the kinds of ethics and sociality that were discussed in the last lecture. It was mentioned in the Assunção reading that capoeira, just like some other African derived combat games, were used as a means to claim social status, settle disputes, reconstitute a community, and also as a part in an initiation ceremony (Assunção 65). Also, in the Birenbaum Quintero reading from last week, it was discussed how there was a push and pull when dancing that never allows the dancers to touch, but has some sort of rhythmic base that follows the music (Birenbaum Quintero 14). This can be seen when watching the YouTube video of Capoeira. There is more of a push and pull that coincides with the music.

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  2. Throughout this article we see that many different cultures in Africa have rituals or styles of dance that are very similar to capoeira. For example, n’golo (the zebra dance) is offered as the origin of capoeira. It is argued that capoeira is descended from this form of dance, which involves elements that are similar to capoeira: rhythm created by participants and combative dance styles. Here we see the ease with which practices can be exchanged across cultures within Africa. Similarly, there is evidence of another dance, called kaneka, in Quilengues, which has the same elements as both capoeira and n’golo. The presence of these same practices in such diverse places across Africa shows the syncretism that happens between African cultural groups. However, although these practices point to cross-cultural similarities it must also be recognized that they are all still distinct from one another. The contexts in which these dances happen is very different, because of the essential differences among the cultures, some are puberty rites, others are part of celebrations or festivals. Therefore, although there is cultural mixing that goes on, these dances are still distinguishable from one another.
    The emphasis of community inclusion and participation is demonstrated in the practice of capoeira. Even though usually only two people are fighting, the entire group participates by keeping a rhythm and cheering or goading the combatants. Also, the embracement of conflict is clearly shown through the practice of capoeira, as it is a fighting dance. It seems to be the culmination of conflict being incorporated perfectly into African music and dance, because it combines them while placing fighting at the core of the ritual.

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  3. This article addresses many of the concepts we have been discussing in class, specifically the concepts surrounding syncretism/creolization. Assunçao notes that there has been an ongoing process (almost an evolution) of musical/dance/combat practices throughout Latin America as a result of interactions between African cultures, European cultures, and Native American cultures. These interactions are a combination of adaptation, opposition, and reinterpretation. This makes it exceedingly difficult to conclude where certain practices come from because there simply isn’t a clear-cut answer. Many argue that the capoeira is a descendant of Angola’s N’golo practice because of their similarity in dance (foot work, agility, head-butting, etc.) and musical practices (rhythms, instrumentation, call and response). However, there are also many other African practices that display these similarities as well, such as the Mrengue, kaneka and Bassula. This clearly shows syncretism between African cultures, which may have occurred before, during, and after the slave trade period.

    While these similarities show that cultural practices such as the capoeira may have evolved from common backgrounds, there are differences when comparing different regions of Latin America and the Caribbean. Assunçao says that although some dances or rituals such as the capoeira may have the same name across regions, there is not necessarily an identical practice for that dance or ritual across regions of Latin America. This individuality shows that there were substantial influences from Europe and the Native Americans. Assunçao also states that “what appears to be ‘traditional’… is inevitably the result of a long history with substantial changes in forms, contexts and meanings.” This shows that there is a continuous morphing of traditions and cultural practices due to the continuous interaction of cultures, and new interpretations of these cultural practices.

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  4. Mackenzie Schleicher
    February 13, 2011
    Blog #4

    Syncretism is created by the fusion of distinct cultural practices coming together as a single system—the distinct beliefs persist but are perceived as a single unit. For example, war dances and combat games featured many, if not all, African societies and exemplified the African arts of war (Assunção 45). In the Brazilian batuques and in capoeira, there was a prominence of percussion, polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, and dancing in a circle—all of which we have discussed in class (Assunção 41). Similar to capoeira, Assunção explains that kandeka “takes place in a circle of boys and adult men, and that the music consists of a steady clapped rhythm while individual fighters take turns leading call and response songs which serve to encourage the fighters and ridicule those who do not show bravery in kandeka” (Assunção 51). These characteristics of capoeira and kandeka emulate the concept of centripetal force discussed in class where the dancers never touch each other, and there is tension between the male and female while dancing. The male and female are constantly moving in and out while dancing. It is hard to prove where present day combat games such as capoeira were derived, although many assumptions have been made based on combat games in pre-colonial African societies. It was said that the slaves had their hands tied behind their backs so the only way to defend themselves against overseers and slave catchers was to use kicks and head butts (Assunção 44).
    Capoeira was used in warfare to acquire ranking and status within the community. It was also a way in which the Africans settled disputes, reconstituted a community or re-affirmed ethnic pride (Assunção 65). Therefore, capoeira exemplifies the kinds of ethics and sociality that we have talked about in class through musical performances integrating a community. People come together and organize themselves like a mini government. Capoeira can be seen as a consummation of characteristics such as polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, and dancing in a circle that have originated from various African cultures which exemplify the kinds of ethics and sociality that we have discussed in class.

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  5. Laura Connolly
    Capoeira is composed of many different African influences and the influences of the local context. While Capoeira is a distinct dance style or ritual, there are many other dance styles and rituals that are similar in structure and have similar elements to Capoeira. Capoeira and other dance practices are also adaptations of African war practices. This is partly due to the re-appropriated elements and manifestations of slave society after being brought over and having a mixing of African cultures, a phenomenon that is not found in Africa (36). Because little had been recorded about dance rituals before the 20th century, it is difficult to see which dance rituals led to each other as they all have overlapping elements but are yet entirely distinct styles. Many African cultures have distinct languages and practices in Africa which overlap in Latin America and the Caribbean showing the syncretism of African cultures caused by the slave trade. Slaves were able to maintain their own traditions and cultures and also re-appropriate elements of other cultures that they mixing with them in slavery. Capoeira overlaps with many dance practices like batuque which is also a dance taking place in a circle which handclapping, singing, and often drums or instruments. As long as dance practices did not convey themselves as subversive, the dominant European and church leaders allowed these practices to continue so they also appeared to incorporate new church ideals which also allowed for syncretism as it was taking in new ideas and practices from its local context. While capoeira does overlap with many other types of dance, what make them distinct from one another are the types of drum beats and polyrhythms used. It is the beats that make a dance distinct and is the stable part of the dance even when other influences are adapted into the dance.

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  6. Charlotte Beach

    Capoeira is a perfect example of how creolization of music/dance/fight exists today. In the case of capoeira, there is no distinct origin but instead it is a culmination of many African influences. The ways in which slave plantations were formed and organized has played a large role in how capoeira has developed over the years. Although many slaves had different ethnic backgrounds, they were still able to communicate because many spoke several languages. Each colony received slaves “from a wide range of different backgrounds” (36) in order to prevent unrest. On sundays, it was common for the slaves to practice combat games (65). Therefore, it makes sense that capoeira was a culmination of various African characteristics. Ultimately, this type of slave culture perpetuated the syncretism of different ethnic backgrounds and formed capoeira.

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  7. Ben Hill-Lam

    Capoeira is an inherently vague term. The practices, rhythms, and unique styles vary widely from place to place within Brazil. The variety in and of itself speaks of syncretism, as different groups of people with different backgrounds all combine to form various differentiated forms of Capoeira. The origin of Capoeira is unusually hard to pinpoint, due to a combination of many different candidates for the “original” version, and the lack of solid evidence involved in the investigation of such African practices. These factors contribute to the murky origins of a practice that, even if specifically derived from one particular African fight/game/dance, has been creolized and developed significantly within its own social framework and contributing factors.
    Any discussion of the Capoeira necessarily invites discussion of its origins, of which there is no clear-cut answer. The development of Capoeira involves syncretism between multiple different languages, fighting styles, and rhythms that are the contributions of the different groups of slaves brought over to the New World. To begin with, the rhythms used in capoeira show the stunning diversity of the African nations that the slaves came from. The diversity is also reflected in the different languages that each group of slaves brought with them. Thus, the syncretism is again inherent in the fact that these slaves were able to retain some sort of religious practices that sprung up among the slaves. All of these syncretisms aside, “the emphasis on percussion, polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, and dancing in a circle” are more general African features that were retained by many of the slaves brought over and are consistently seen in all styles of capoeira. Capoeira has been linked specifically to practices such as N’golo (the zebra dance), kandaka, , omudinhu, cufuinha, mrenge, morengy, moringue, and bassula, among other African fighting games. These all share some aspects with capoeira, yet it is clear that none of them possess all the characteristics that define capoeira. It must be then, that capoeira is of all of these practices and of none. It borrowed its features from these different contests, since different groups of slave brought knowledge of different games. The contexts for these game, whether ritualistic or for fun, would have been lost in the brutal social oppression due to slavery, and thus new social contexts for capoeira have developed. The different styles of capoeira have also been accounted for, as different areas would have had different concentrations of slaves from different areas in Africa, leading to a unique contribution of knowledge of fighting games in different areas. As contact between slaves grew through runaways, maroon societies, and other social gatherings, capoeira could have been taught/transferred and somewhat standardized as the practice flourished, but also retaining its unique cultural style form each region. Clearly capoeira is a product of syncretism between the language, music, and fighting styles of the different groups of slaves brought over from their respective cultures and nations in Africa.

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  8. Steven Borukhin

    Assunçao makes it clear that capoeira is significant to Brazil but its origins are quite difficult to assess. Capoeira emerged through an “intense process of borrowing, re-invention, and circulation” (31). The music/dance form is a result of creolization and incorporates different African and Latin American practices. The chapters discuss the different religious Gods that slaves believed in. Since the music has a religious undertone and theme, the mixture of the different deities shows a syncretism of different African cultures. Furthermore, widespread terminology such as batuque allowed different groups to create their own versions of what they believed different dances entailed. Batuque specifically manifested itself into one of the only forms of freedom that the slaves could enjoy. This freedom was shared throughout the different slave cultures and didn’t bother slave owners. In addition, by having different groups know about the same rituals, it allowed for batuque to advance. Different groups added on and took off to personalize their song and dance. This all helped to develop “neo-African ethnic identities” between the slaves (43). By developing identity allowed different African culture groups to retain some of their past while still being able to conform to their new surroundings. In doing so they synchronized themselves ethically, regardless of where they were geographically in Latin America. Fighting also brought sync to different African culture groups. Since the colonizers stripped slaves of weapons, slaves fought with just their bodies with a pseudo-martial art form. Africans would get together and use their fighting techniques in organized games to not only entertain themselves but to be with people who they believed were more like themselves. Capoeira features a large combination of themes that derive from a mixture of different African cultures. It embraces the many aspects such as religion and fight moves in dance that developed out of a collaboration of different African and slave ideals.

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  9. Assunçao writes about how syncretism and the interaction of cultures as a result of the slave trade have influenced Afro-American music like capoeira. The differences that appear not only among the different countries, but also between capoeira in different regions of Brazil, make it difficult to trace the origins or the dance and music back to Africa. Assunçao speaks of the slave traders forbidding the use of weapons to captives, thus they had to develop their bodies into weapons and in turn created capoeira. Living situations like these created many different forms of music in which slave had to adapt or reinterpret to use what was available to them. It is similar to that of the drummer reacting to the drummer in that improvisation is used during performances.

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  10. The emergence of capoeira as a distinct art/music/dance form is reflective of the syncretism that has occured within and among many different Latin American cultures. Capoeira does not have a single origin of influence - it resembles forms from several different African cultures that are clearly different from one another. However, the differences between these cultures are definitely reconciled into the product of capoiera. The slaves on the plantations were of different ethnic origins, and this was an intentional strategy employed by the slave owners to prevent conspiracies among their slaves. However, examples like capoeira clearly demonstrate the syncretism that occured during the cultural exchange and crosslinking of these different African ethnicities. From the music to the pseudo fighting, we witness an amalgamation of diverse African influences and thus witness the syncretism that pervades capoeira.

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  11. The Brazilian art form of capoeira involves elements of music, dance, game and fighting. Many aspects of these elements are derived from African cultures. However, capoeira is neither Brazilian nor African, rather a syncretism of the two cultures. In music, traditions such as “single and double metal bells” from West Africa and Kongo/Angola are used in candomble, batuque and capoeira in the New World (39). Collective participation, dancing in a circle, and call and response are also African musical elements incorporated in Brazilian capoeira.
    Some argue that slaves influenced capoeira game and fighting, which is an art form centered around kicks, head butts, leg sweeps and other acrobatics. Since slaves had their hands tied in shackles, the formation of this art form does make sense. However, lacking documentation, it is very hard to prove. Therefore, African warfare is not greatly associated with capoeira. (44)
    The video exemplifies the sense of community that capoeira fosters. In the video, audience members gather in a circle and appear to be involved in call and response. Musicians also play percussion instruments along side Mestre Cobra Mansa and Mestre Jogo de Dentro. Call and response, a circular formation, and percussion instruments are all African traditions that have been absorbed into capoeira dance and game. The fact that these two men are able to compete with each other in a friendly manner also contributes to societal ethics at large.

    Hannah Wurgaft

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  12. Rebecca Centanni

    Much of the syncretism that we have been discussing in class can be characterized by complexity and vagueness of origins. The same is true of capoeira, as its origins cannot be clearly defined. The article begins by explaining the complicated arguments about the origins of slave culture and the various mixings that occurred both before and after Africans set foot on new world soil. The article raises the question whether slave culture is an assimilation and adaptation to the master’s culture, or rather a retention of practices from Africa. I feel that this question is integral to both the discussion of capoeira in the article as well as syncretism in general, as extensive amounts of cultural exchange occurred both between Africans, Europeans, and Natives, as well as between various African groups. The differing levels of interactions in various geographic locations help to explain the levels of similarity between capoeira and other combat fights/dances/music.

    The issue of syncretism as relating to capoeira is especially complex because of the diverse range of other combat games and dances found throughout the new world that carry many of the same characteristics as capoeira. Both kandeka and engolo are similar to capoeira in that they incorporate combative movements in a circular formation, yet the three dances are also quite different in their contextual uses. Engolo, a much more dangerous version of kandeka, is primarily used in ceremonies for an individual reaching puberty. Kandeka commonly used engolo songs to instigate competitiveness in its participants, as kandeka had much more physical combative contact did capoeira. Nonetheless, all of these African combat games have similar movements that can be traced back to African war practices. Additionally, they share the characteristics of call and response, collective participation, and an emphasis on drumming that have all been common in many of our in-class examples of syncretism. Maní, a fistfight performance in Cuba, also shares many structural characteristics with capoeira. The fact that Maní is performed “en lengua” so that Africans, creoles, and whites can understand, highlights the degree of syncretism in the practice, as the appreciation of the performance is shared by many cultural groups.

    The author then explains some other distant forms similar to capoeira such as jugar palo in Venezuela and another form of stick fighting in Trinidad. Again, these forms exhibit a degree of similarity to capoeira as they have similar rhythms and movements, as well as their prominence within poor populations. However, these forms of stick fighting often were incorporated into religious contexts. Their similarities in style but differences in contexts exhibit the heart of syncretism, as many characteristics were carried between groups of people and generations, incorporating these qualities into new contextual forms.

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  13. Assuncao notes that the dance/fight/music known as capoeira, which is largely popular in Brazil, is a culmination of a mixture of characteristics from various African groups. Capoeira is somewhat of a creole development, it contains a distinct personality but is still has roots in African religions, dance, and performances. Due to the slave trade cultures were involuntarily mixed and capoeira as we know it today resulted from the embers. Combat games, such as capoeira, were popular on the weekends when slaves were allowed to take part.

    Before capoeira was made possible in large part due to the slave trade influences for the movement could be found throughout Africa. In African cultures combat games were typically used to settle disputes and resolve issues of social status. Batuque is a term used to describe the activities of dance and song that natives participated in. These rituals involved movements very similar to that of capoeira; as well as techniques we have discussed in class, which they both possess, such as call and response or collective participation. Another example of capoeira’s roots in Africa is the zebra dance, or “N’golo”. This style of dance involves members of the circle participating in combative dance, such as in capoeira. Although capoeira ultimately originates in Africa it is important to understand that all the dances are distinct from one another, and only through the process of mixing various cultures could capoeira be possible.

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  14. Assunçao starts out explaining that capoeira in an art form that developed out of the Brazilian context of colonial slave cultural and furthermore, its origins cannot be perceived as strictly Brazilian or African but rather as a transatlantic, creole development (31). No research, Assunçao asserts, has rendered the occurrence of fusion between heterogeneous traditions invalid (32). So if scholars have established that cultural change, i.e. syncretism, or creolization as Assunçao prefers to call it, did occur, what brought it on and how was this kind of fusion expressed in the case of capoeira? Syncretism (and therefore the development of capoeira) occurred during a socialization process, Assunçao states, between slaves form a wide range of different ethnic backgrounds (32).
    The most compelling argument for the existence of Afro-South American syncretism/creolization is that of religion, yet on a much smaller scale, capoeira exhibits many of the same syncretic characteristics (37). Capoeira is a Brazilian combat game with the same emphases on music, dance, rhythms, drumming, etc. just as Assunçao refers to specifically in his description: “…rhythmic patterns were recognized by performers and audiences… they contributed to maintain specific neo-African identities or ‘nations’.” He continues, “The emphasis on percussion, polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, and dancing in a circle constituted not only Angolan or Bantu, but more general African features that were maintained in the Brazilian… capoeira” (41). This is a perfect description of how capoeira had been creolized because it speaks to just how African attributes (the same attributes we talked about in class) were incorporated into a Brazilian-rooted tradition. Furthermore, the use of particular drums characteristic of African culture, or rhythmic patterns specific to a regional identity, “does not exclude other contributions from elsewhere” (40). For example, stick fighting in Trinidad parallels with capoeira in several areas: emphasis on synchronization between drummer and fighter, rhythm and movements, challenge songs, and the constitution of gangs in urban environments (59).
    On a last note, Assunçao explains that most combat games such as capoeira “fulfilled a wide range of social functions”—specifically, the music and dance associated with such games were essential in their respective ceremonies or rituals (44). “Music and dance [also] fulfilled important functions in the redefinition of ethnic identities and style. Capoeira rhythms having neo-African names … are thus perfectly in line with the historical formation of slave culture,” affirmed Assunçao (44).

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  15. As we have learned so far this year, creolization has been responsible for many Latin American and Caribbean customs. Assuncao furthers this point during his description of Capoeira. He explains that this fight/dance seems to have roots in many different African cultures, though it's official roots are difficult to trace. Many variations of combat games have been performed in the new world. These other types of dances, such as engolo and kandeka, are made up of similar styles but are performed in different contexts. This accentuates the point that though many Latin American dance/fights share certain characteristics, they have all developed in ways distinct from one another and are each uniquely designed depending on the specific African cultures and Latin American cultures that meshed to produce them.

    Capoeira is made up of certain components that we have seen in many other types of music. For example, call and response, collective participation, religion, circular organization etc. These types of socialization have also been creolized and result in unique music and dance performances.

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  16. Capoeira is the perfect example of the syncretism between African descendants that we have been discussing in class recently. Although the reading offers up lots of hypotheses regarding the origins and potential ancestors of capoeira dance, the conclusion is reached that we cannot directly trace the development and evolution of capoeira, but rather can only agree that it is a blending of many different environmental inputs with previous traditions. Creolization was happening in Africa as well as the Americas, so many African cultures were evolving even before slaves were transported to the Americas. Facts like this only further complicate our attempts to map culture change like the development of capoeira.
    What we do know is that capoeira incorporates many of the musical and societal aspects we have been studying. From a musical standpoint, capoeira includes drumming, call and response, and interaction between the fighter and the musicians. When we study capoeira’s role in society, along with that of other combat games and war dances, it is clear that these activities had multiple functions, including the settling of quarrels, ceremonies, asserting one’s rank, and even general recreation. What the history of capoeira seems to touch upon is that, once again, we are seeing an aspect of black culture in Latin America and the Caribbean whose history and cultural makeup is nebulous. I think this ties back well into is Mintz and Price’s idea that “heterogeneous crowds” rather than “groups” of slaves were brought to the Americas, and that, within these “crowds” there were cultural shifts that broadened and restructured the crowd to accommodate the other crowds that were in the same region. This constant cultural exchange and reciprocity, adaptations that were necessary for the survival of some traditional culture, created a blend that is untraceable, and capoeira’s history exemplifies this.

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  17. In discussing the origins of the martial dance form capoeira it is necessary to look at forces such as syncretism to understand the influences at the root of the art form. While the lack of written documentation of this art plays an important role, the incredible difficulty in assigning an origin for the dance/fight/game is proof of the convoluted effects of syncretism. Many scholars have tried to trace the origins of capoeira to certain traditional African dances (such as N’golo) that originated form known geographical regions. Many noted combat games have underlying similarities with capoeira such as a particular religious basis, methods of attack, and weapon use. These communalities have given scholars evidence for supposing a singular origin. However, no one has been able to find a clear match, instead the differences are prominent enough that ultimately assigning a singular origin is impossible. Thus it seems that there are many African origins for capoeira and that forces such as syncretism are responsible for its amalgamation of characteristics. Looking broadly, capoeira provides a perfect example of the forces of syncretism on African culture in the New World. We have seen this frequently in our own discussions in class, particularly in conversations about religion

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  18. Brendan McDermott
    Combat games were and to an extent still are abundant in the Caribbean with many of their roots tracing back to Africa. Many Latin American nations have their own kinds of combat games though there are many similarities between them. As we have discussed in class Africans coming to the Caribbean were often more of a “crowd” than distinct groups creating interesting dynamics in the evolution of these games in the New World. Capoeira is a combat game and performance that uses kick and head butts. Some people attribute this the fact that slaves often had their hands shackled together so they learned to fight without them. Capoeira has many ties to the African elements we have been talking about as it deals with percussions, call and response, polyrhythm, dancing in a circle, and even communal participation. Attempts to pin down the origin in Africa of capoeira have been difficult. Many different combat games were played all over Africa and some groups in Central Africa and Madagascar do seem to have played games with the kicking and head-butting. It has been linked to the modern game of n’gola which is found in Angola. It has been proposed that n’gola is an ancestor of Capoeira as n’gola traveled across the Atlantic in slave ships to Brazil. Ladjia is a game from Martinique that mostly used kicks and head-butts with a striking similarity to capoeira and stick fighting is also detailed as a sport in Trinidad. All of these combat games with many different origins served distinct purposes sometimes to settle fights but other times just to symbolize rivalry. Some games also served the purpose of group identification and some even were used as warfare training as shown by the overseer who could not strike a blow to a slave with his machete because the slaves were too skilled at avoiding blows.. The majority though usually involved music and dance and were part of a larger communal performance.

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  19. Rodolfo Edeza

    Capoeira involves elements of music, dance, game and fighting that are African derived. Capoeira is a mixture of the Brazilian and African culture. Instruments like single and double metal bells were reinforced in the New World from West and Central Africa. Musical traditions were reinforced and known in Brazil entered in candomble, batuque, and capoeira. The emphasis on percussion, polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, and dancing in a circle generally constitute African features that were maintained in the Brazilian batuques and in capoeira (41).
    There are a lot of similarities between African combat games and capoeira. Capoeira is a dance form centered on the aspects of wrestling, hand or fist fighting/boxing, kicking and head butting. Wresteling is prominent in West Africa, stick fighting is widely performed in most Southern and Central Africa, and traditional fist fighting is still important in present day Nigeria and Cameroon (45). Combat games fulfilled a wide range of social functions that served as a means of group identification, and ranking people within groups according to this prestige they acquired. In the New World slaves were stripped of their weapons and all they had was their hands, legs, and heads. Fighting brought syncretism to different slave groups both retaining and innovating new techniques.
    In the video we can see how capoeira creates a sense of community by the structure of a circle, call and response, clapping, and improvisation by the dancers and musicians. The two men work on an Aesthetic cool because it looks easy, but they are working hard and when they hit the climax the crowd cheers with happiness and claps. Ethically you can see the beauty of the dance form in its entity because the two men inside the circle are interacting in a friendly manner that creates room for martial and difficult strikes from time to time.

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  20. The Assunção article addresses many of the same issues we have recently talked about in class for the other forms of culture within Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean. The article first addresses the concept of how African influence came to South America through the slave trade. It is noted that many of the slaves were forced to convert to Catholicism and different places in Africa kept to their own “nation” rather than joining together as one African presence. This is important to note because it then because apparent that there is a large mixture of African culture, not just one specific African culture. We talked about this last week in class when we were discussing the presence of European influence on the different types of music in South America. The article then talks about Batuque which was a generic term used for any singing and dancing by natives (Assunção, 39) which makes it difficult to differentiate different dancing and cultures among the people and kind of groups all of the ‘African’ culture into one. Batuque eventually took on a more specific meaning of having slaves dance it with many instruments and it is known that this has influenced the ethnic divisions of the African nations. Assunção emphasizes throughout the whole piece that it is impossible to trace an exact origin to the Capoeira dance because there are so many different influences. The N’golo dance is thought to be a possible origin of the Capoeira dance. Many of the motions are similar and the follow of the rhythm is the same. The article then talks about the possible infleunces of the bangala and kandeka, and then the influence of the Quilengues. Assunção notes “the problem is that there are so many other possible ancestors for capoeria and the other combat games…” (53) And this speaks volumes to our question of syncretism. It is clear that there is a degree of syncretism between the tradition Africans and their descendants but it is hard to trace specific strands of syncretism because so many now overlap and combine and this not only applies to capoeira and combat dances, but dance, music, and all cultural practices in general.

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  21. The chapter we read attempts to trace capoeira back to its original roots, ultimately concluding that it is impossible to determine definitively the origins of the tradition that evolved into capoeira. One of the major causes of the difficulty is the syncretism or creolization that happened both among African cultural groups and between African descendants and others in Latin America and the Caribbean. Assunçao cites Mintz and Price’s distinction of “heterogeneous crowds” of African slaves rather than homogenous, “structured groups” (32). Continuing on to discuss both distinctions and overlaps among language groups, cultural practices, and religious traditions, Assunçao states that “since creolization was not restricted to the Americas, but occurred on both sides of the Atlantic, the distinction between African and creole is less meaningful than often assumed” (38). Thus, the intercultural creolization that took place in Africa as well as in Latin America and the Caribbean contributed to the diverse and obscured roots of capoeira.

    Assunçao points to several different dancing/war games traditions to indicate possible influences on capoeira, including the general term batuque (used by the Portuguese to denote singing and dancing by African slaves) (39), the combat games of the Wolof in modern-day Senegal (46), n’golo in Angola (47), various iterations of stick fighting (57-60) and the martial art ladjia that may have originated in Nigeria (63). Various combinations and interpretations of these dances/war games were found throughout Latin America and the Caribbean, indicating the syncretism between African groups both in Africa and upon arrival in Latin America and the Caribbean. Attempting to trace the origins of capoeira helps illustrate the complex, ongoing process of syncretism that shapes African imports to Latin America and the Caribbean.

    Many of the war games discussed exemplify the ethics and sociality that we discussed in class. For example, in mani, “if the chief drummer failed, he had to leave his post, which was taken over by somebody else” (60). In this manner, the community upheld standards for all involved in the event, not merely the players.

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  22. Danielle Orchant

    Through its depiction of capoeira, this chapter illuminates the creolization that comprises a significant portion of black Latin American and Caribbean culture. However, it goes beyond the concept of creolization discussed among many articles we’ve previously read. This chapter stresses the crucial concept that creolization and syncretism are non-linear. In this sense, much of black Latin American and Caribbean culture is not only a combination of African-derived and European-derived forms, but also an intricate amalgam of different African-derived forms themselves. From understanding this point, we can see that it is often inaccurate and unhelpful to discuss African cultural forms as spanning across the entire continent. In turn, various African-derived forms interact to create the syncretism present in contemporary black Latin American and Caribbean culture just as those forms interact with European-derived concepts. This syncretism of different African and European culture forms is present in capoeira, which relies heavily on the relationship between rhythm and movement, and moreover between the drummer and fighter.
    Although capoeira may not be an integral part of specific religious practices that relate to ethics and sociality, it seems clear that it takes on some of the issues surrounding such ideas; capoeira certainly plays a part in elucidating the ethical culture of black Brazilians. The combat present within capoeira often settles disputes. Further, capoeira as a whole serves the purpose of reestablishing the community and arousing cultural/ethnic pride.

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  23. Capoeira developed as a product of creolization out of the Brazilian context of colonial slave culture. Trade and expansion allowed for many inhabitants on of West and Central Africa to speak several languages. Slaves coming from the same sub region or speaking one of the main languages could communicate, facilitating creolization. Religious practices were also similar from creolization from Trade on the coast. As slaves, creolization was facilitated by what Assunçao identifies as petit marronage, slaves ran away for a night togo to a party or mistress at another plantation.
    Capoeira is a martial art form that is said to be derived from African combat games and arts of war, which are inherently linked. It has specifically been linked to the combat game n'golo because they are both danced to a special polyrhythm and focus on kicking. It also has the stick element that is traced back to many friendly combat games and real confrontations amongst slaves in all parts of America. Capoeira encompasses many elements from African culture: dance to percussion playing polyrhythms, in a circle, and call and response in song and dance.

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  24. It makes sense that we learn about Capoeira at this point in the class. It is a perfect example of a creolized form of music and dancing that can be seen in Latin America that does not just have African ties, but transatlantic characteristics. This type of musical experience involves many forms in many different aspects of its make up. Dance, music, play, and combat are the characteristics that go into Capoeira. The little scholarship that can be found on Capoeira is what makes it so interesting. It is extremely hard to trace it roots back to Africa, for no one has been able to find enough writing on it to make any assumptions of its origin. This type of music and dance experience is so powerful when you have the dancers in the middle of a large circle repeatedly rotating their movements from playful dancing to almost fierce combat. This type of dancing brings elements from both American slaves and some of the polyrhythmic patterns could be said to Africanistic in a sense.

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  25. Chelsea Young
    Capoeira is a specific type of Brazilian art form that combines elements of martial arts, sports, and music. First of all, because capoeira combines all of these different elements, it only makes sense that different cultures were mixed or fused together in order for so many factors to represent in one art form. Capoeira was created in the 16th century by African slaves, however, as we mentioned in class, it is nearly impossible to group all Africans into one category because they came from all different parts of Africa. Thus, many different cultures are brought together. So, from the music standpoint, different instruments are used, some taken from parts of Africa, and some are derived from areas in Brazil. In addition to the diversification of instruments, songs were also changed. If the basic structure of one solo singer and a chorus were maintained, Portuguese tended to replace African languages, which is an example of syncretism between Africans and Brazilians. In addition, the emphasis on percussion, polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, and dancing in a circle constituted not only Angolan or Bantu, nut more general African features that were maintained in the Brazilian batuques and in capoeira. Capoeira also incorporates kicking and fighting because it is a common story that salves had their hands tied in shackles and thus had to use other parts of their bodies in their desperate attempt to defend themselves against overseers and slave catchers. Thus, many elements were combined and utilized from African slaves in Brazil in order to establish this art form known as capoeira and it is hard to pinpoint exactly what capoeira is or where exactly it was initially developed.

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  26. Dominique Johnson

    Capoeira is a distinct dance style/ritual composed of various African influences {specifically within a local context}. It is one of many examples of an adaptation to different African war practices, and is a great example of creolization, in the fact that the dance form incorporates re-appropriated elements and manifestations of slave culture after the transfer from Africa to America and the mixing of African cultures, which is not found in Africa (36). The manner in which slave plantations were formed and organized played a major role in the development of Capoeira over the years, as each colony received slaves “from a wide range of different backgrounds” (36) in order to prevent disorder and formation of slaves in an effort to revolt. However, despite the various slave ethnic backgrounds, they were still able to find a common language, as many slaves spoke several different languages. On Sundays, slaves usually practiced combat games (65). Capoeira overlaps with many different dance forms like batuque {a dance that takes place also in a circle with handclapping and singing with the use of drums and other instruments}. As long as the dance forms did not convey methods of resisting authority slave masters allowed the practices to continue which lead to the incorporation of new ideas and practices from this new slave environment. Capoeira differs itself from other dance forms due to the distinct drumbeats and polyrhythm used.

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  27. Christina Pindar

    Capooeira and the various other forms of dance/fighting discussed in the article are inherent creolized creations. The origins of the dances are vague and are rooted in a variety of African cultures and traditions, lending itself as yet another example of creolization between African cultures and traditions. In addition, the significance is controversial; African cultural resistance could be interpreted as a means of social control by slaveholders (43). Did this cultural form merely continue because of slaveholders’ acceptance of it? Or did slaves adapt its representation to ensure its continued acceptance and hence maintain their ability to practice it? These dance forms inevitably gained aspects of Catholicism, as in many instances Africans integrated Catholic practices into their religious forms. African religions, as polytheistic, easily accommodated the saints and God of Catholicism. Thus, stick fighting became associated with the worship of St. Anthony and could be performed in public as a celebration of faith. In this way, not only was African culture affected, but European culture as well.

    In addition, although unable to be supported, the suggestion that capoeira was developed, or at least influenced, by slaves’ inability to use weapons or their hands, is exceptionally interesting. The thought that Africans refuted every attempt at subjugation and domination is a powerful one; they refused to submit to the domination of European culture and society and continued to exert their power through manners of fighting. By exerting their power, however, they inevitability transformed the traditional techniques because of their inability to use arms and weapons with which they were accustomed. Hence, European domination failed at subjugation, but nurtured adaptation.

    Further syncretism is exhibited in the incorporation of these dances in Carnival. Patrons supported the performance and inclusion of these dance forms in the Carnival celebration. There may also be a tradition of patronage in African cultures, but for me, this is highly reminiscent of Renaissance patronage of artists commissioned to complete a certain art piece. This lends a formal air to the dance; no longer is it merely a means of resistance or celebration of African culture, but rather an art form recognized by the colonizers. This recognition through patronage is reminiscent of a European manner of acceptance and approval.

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  28. Assuncao compares the development of Capoeira to the establishment of the Candomble religion in Brazil. He suggests that research shows both surfaced as manifestations of fusions between European and African ethnic groups. As a result of slavery, blacks created new identities for themselves in the "New World" that retains some African ethnic influences in the music and traces of more Euro-centric practices of fraternity. Research sows that "combat games" were prevalent throughout the continent serving social functions including distances as far a part as Cameroon and Madagascar. Assuncao also lists masquerade dances from West Africa (Yoruba traditions) as possible influences on the development of some moves in capoeira.

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  29. Sam Bonnel
    Capoeira exemplifies creolization as a result of interactions among various African group and between descendants, natives, and colonists. The creolized religion, candomblé, allowed for the simultaneous worship of ancestral gods and the newly imposed Catholic Saints. He notes that this syncretism occurred in several aspects of culture, not just religion. The term batuque generalized any dances, accompanied by singing, instruments, and clapping, performed by blacks (free or enslaved) in a circle. While slaves from the Kongo/Angola and Mozambique regions danced bataques, many others joined in. It is telling that the capoeira style has survived by developing new purpose. While once a dance to allow slaves to train their bodies as weapons against the colonists, it was perpetuated as a dancing style that allowed blacks to connect with the culture and undoubtedly, the history of their ancestors.
    We see a blending of cultures in the spread of capoeira: instruments from the Kongo/Angola region remain, while West African and possibly even Central African instruments are introduced. Notable "Africanisms" are witnessed in capoeira and more generally, bataque dances, such as the emphasis on percussion and the use of polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, dancing in a circle, some interaction between dancers and musicians (as seen in the video below), and certain rhythmic patterns. These elements can be linked to origins in a number of places across the African continent, but as he explains - there is no clean separation as to what group contributed what element. From the moment these African groups, or crowds, rather, crossed the Atlantic, slaves interacted and that interaction continued once they landed. The sharing of language, instruments, and general African features allowed slaves to obtain a level of solidarity while distinct cultures blurred with each other and that of other groups. As we've discussed with most aspects of culture after creolization, it is difficult to track instruments or influences to distinct regions in Africa because the crowds post-slave trade were so heterogeneous.

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  30. In this chapter, Assuncao points out, as we have discussed in class, that slaves were uprooted and displaced from their cultures, which played a large role in the acculturation that occurred in the Americas. In their attempts to form new communities in these new places they had been moved to, cultural change was inevitable with the congregating of people from so many different places and cultures. In order “to form again a community in the Americas, slaves had therefore to go through a process of intense cultural change” (32). In the various identities attributed to the slaves, language, religion and statehood did not overlap, as a rule. The “emphasis on percussion, polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, and dance in a circle” were prominent African features of the music, but not the only features of the music, as they were mixed with Angolan and Bantu as well (41). The more songs were preformed, the more they were shaped by local and national traditions, potentially causing misinterpretations of the meanings. Specifically, capoeira rhythms have been found to be in line with the historical formation of slave culture. It is believed that the capoeira art uses kicks and head butts because slaves had their hands tied and no other way to defend themselves. Clear links exist between the combat games and the “art of war”, and both forms support one another. Many aspects of the capoeira fight and music show the convergence of different cultures, particularly the historic slave cultures with the more modern European cultures that exist. These aspects, such as rhythms and fight styles, have withstood the test of time by incorporating other cultures and adapting to fit the style of different places.

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  31. Aggie Kelly
    2/16/11

    Capoeira, while its distinct origin is a mystery, is a combination of many elements coming from many different cultures. It implements practices common in African music, such as dancing, heavy rhythm emphasis, call and response, and circular collective participation, and combines them with the art of combat. Since all of these factors are combined into a single tradition, capoeira, and the other similar dance/fight art forms, reflect a culmination of multiple African ancestral paths. While it accomplishes the goal of a physical contest, the musical aspect reinforces the musical emphasis that is so highly valued in African and Latin American societies.
    I had definitely heard of and seen capoeira before, but I was not aware of the multiple forms that are included. When I saw the video with “stick fighting” in the title, I feared for the participants life. Hand-to-hand combat is dangerous enough, but including weapons seems like a terrible idea. However, I quickly learned that this form of dance fighting was not a fight that looked like a dance, but a dance that looked like a fight. The performers were jumping and spinning around, and on every beat they would hit each other’s sticks, and thankfully not each other. Included in this complicated dance, the performers also managed to beat the sticks on the ground, adding an improvisational fill to the background music, again enforcing African musical values. Clearly, in all forms of capoeira, the music is the root of the practice, just like in most African societies.

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  32. The Assuncao article once again presented us with the issue of creolization and syncretism in regards to certain religious, musical, or practices found in Latin America that have African origins. Assuncao also touches upon the development and movement of languages and religion initially in Africa then in the New World. The specific example was that of the martial art/dance known as Capoeira. Although scholars cannot directly connect Capoeira to Africa, there are many aspects of the martial art found in Africa such as the wrestling component of Capoeira. Capoeira is a mixture of both African and Brazilian culture. But the “mixture” is what is discussed in the piece. Assuncao stresses the mixture of the cultures of various peoples in Africa before and after the Middle Passage. After the initial syncretism of several African cultures, the newly formed cultures would then begin the process again with European influences. Capoeira shares the characteristics of other music that we have studied so far such as call and response and polyrhythm, which are derived from the syncretism of all the various influences found in Brazil.

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  33. Similar to the creoliziation of music during the African Diaspora, the syncretization of martial arts/or combat games has also evolved significantly since the transport of Africans to western colonies. Although the amount of information present on the evolution of these ancient combat games is minimal, much can still be inferred the information we do have. The cultural fusing of music still occurs in nations globally today, yet it appears these ancient combat games have become extinct. In terms of how the combat form grew and evolved, Assunçao references the theory of Mintz and Price, where Assuncao assumes that slave groups should not be viewed as structured assemblies, but as a “heterogenous crowd” (32). Assunçao expounded upon the Mintz/Price theory with his conjecture “that change is acquired during a socialization process” (32) where no “passive adaption” is present.

    Capoeira, a form of martial art, can simply be viewed as another medium for expression within westernized African culture. In times where slaves were stripped of almost all their liberties, combat and martial art was an effective means of expression and social status. When Assunçao states, “In the past, African combat games have often been associated with warfare. Combat games have an obvious martial character, and soldiers, mercenaries or combatants practised them or war dances to show their skills and acquire status” (46), he reveals the motivation of the Capoeira and its practical uses. It is also interesting to note that masquerade traditions which can be likened to musical festivals, usually involve fast-pace dynamic movements that probably originated for the movements in African combat games.

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  34. Stephen Sullivan

    The art form Capoeira carries many elements of syncretism that exist in many other African cultural group and descendents. First, like other African cultures, it is difficult to trace back the origins of Capoeiria. There exists much space for reinterpretation in both its influences and the extent of its influences on other cultures just like the origins of slave cultures in the New World. There exist little recorded history of the creation of such a remarkable artform like much of African history however we can see many obvious African characteristics in Capoeira such as call and response, collectivity and improvisation. It reminds me other musical arts form derived from African except now there is an element of fighting. The drummer vs. dancer relationship is now placed upon the two fighters who challenge each other to bring out their best. Also, Capoeira has served as a tool to bring the community together like many of these other music forms that we have spoken about in class.

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  35. Capoeira embodies the syncretism between African cultural groups and between African descendants and others that we’ve been talking about in class. Capoeira does not have a single cultural origin. Instead, it developed out of the slave culture in Brazil, but because slaves were brought from all different areas of Africa, each with their own unique cultures, capoeira therefore is also the product of various cultures. It is neither completely African nor Brazilian, but rather a creole development. Brazilian capoeira is partially retention of a slave practice, but it also mixed with indigenous and European elements and practices as well. The syncretism is highlighted by the fact that the same term does not refer to the same phenomena. For example, batuque in Bahia means a martial dance, while in Rio Grande it refers to Afro-Brazilian religious practice. This is also true for capoeira. Additionally, neo-African ethnic identities formed, which meant that some of African slave practices and African culture were retained (preservation of order by the slaves), while they also embraced the development of new colonial identities (extension of culture). The slaves who practice capoeira were forced to alter their practice even before reaching the New World. The slaves were denied weapons and were in shackles on their journey to the New World. Thus, the use of different body parts came to take a new presence, especially the legs and head. However, even the practice within Africa was different according to region. Some places emphasized wrestling, others focused on hand combat, while others used sticks and spears. The reasons for partaking in the combat games themselves even varied throughout Africa. Some believe that the n’golo is the origin of capoeira, but in fact, there have been so many circumstances of cultural interplay, combination, recombination, and adaptation, that there is not one single origin.

    Capoeira exemplifies the types of ethics and sociality that we have discussed. It involves communal participation and trust. There are various reasons for participating in capoeira, it can be for fun, a way to restore pride, a way to solve conflicts, and many more. No matter the reason for participating, it involves respect for the past, pride, and trust in the other participants.

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  36. Capoeira is a great example of syncretism between African cultural groups, because it has come to be what it is today through creolization, which says that Capoeria comes from old traditions and cultural circulations from various groups of people. It has also been difficult to trace Capoeria back to one particular ethnic group, and its thought that it is probably a combination of many groups.
    Capoeria is a mixture of music, dance, game, and fighting that is practice throughout Brazil. Each place puts its own “spin” in Capoeria, which makes this dance/fighting game different in each region. There are many practices similar to capoeria throughout the world, such as Kandeka and Engolo, which incorporate fighting movements in a circular pattern. Even though none of these dance/fighting forms are the same they all have roots that can be traced back to the style of fighting used in African war.
    Capoeria can also be argued to be a case that resulted from syncretism because many elements of music that we have been studied are observed in Capoeria. Some noted elements include drums, collective participation, call and response, polyrhythm, and emphasize of dancing in a circle or using circular movement. As taught in class, we know that these elements are a result of a combination of many African cultures that has been “revamped” through creolization. The origins and evolving of these elements present in Capoeria allow us to deduce that Capoeria is an example of syncretism between many different socio-ethnic culture groups.

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  37. The Portuguese used batuque to describe singing and dancing by the slaves; the definition was later incorporated by Brazilians. Slaves would sing and dance in a circle, clapping hands, and often drums and other instruments would accompany. Berimbau, for example, was an instrument used in capoeira that derived from Central African music bows. This is an example of retention of African traits. “The emphasis on percussion, polyrhythm, collective participation, vocal call and response, and dancing in a circle constituted… more general African features that were maintained in the Brazilian batuques and in capoeira.”

    Capoeira has been linked to Angola but more specifically n’golo, a combat game that involved trying to hit your opponent’s face with your feet. Yet there is limited evidence for n’golo being the sole ancestor of capoeira. Instead. Assuncao suggests that there are many possible origins for capoeira, and looking at the historical context of each, he tries to draw conclusions on their similarities to capoeira. He proposes three closely related combat games: mrengé, morengy, and meringue. Assuncao mentions that the “multiplicity of fighting techniques in Africa corresponds to a bewildering variety of social contexts
    for combat games.” He states that there is little documented evidence of pre-colonial combat games, and so that it may be very difficult to find the root of capoeira in that time period. He therefore believes that combat games of plantations might shed more light on the origins of capoeira. Nevertheless, the possibility that capoeira has multiple roots is an example of creolization of different African customs and traditions. Assuncao extends this to combat games in plantations and combat games in Brazil.

    Assuncao writes that “rhythm, music, pantomime, dance and singing” appears as a common denominator of combat games practiced by slaves in American plantations. In addition, there is a continuity of instrumentation, rhythms, movements, and rituals that are clearly African-derived manifestations. In addition, these elements needed to be flexible enough to adapt and change, as is evident in the practice of combat arts in the restricted slave environment, where weapons weren’t allowed and religious efforts were suppressed. Combat games were no longer held for the same cultural reasons. Thus, capoeira was an example of creolization of original African cultures, the mixing of cultures on slave ships and ports, religious influences and oppression, and the limitations of plantation life, among other things.

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  38. Capoeira is a Brazilian dance of African origin that incorporates martial arts movements such as kicks and chops, defined by Merriam-Webster's Dictionary. Slaves from Africa were shipped to Brazil, with the music and dance was a way they communicated. Improvation, communal participation, and call and response all have in common with this form of dance. In the reading they say "this dance was creolized to analyse cultural change." Slaves from Africa not knowing anything about Latin American culture soon creolized their culture to a more LA feel when playing their music and dance.

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  39. Capoeira is a great example of syncretism in the New World. It is an art that combines elements of martial arts, sports and music from various African cultural groups. It is not limited to a specific region; rather it is a mixture of techniques from different African groups. For example, elements of Capoeira such as wrestling and fist fighting are mainly practiced in West Africa, whereas stick fighting is mainly practiced in the Southern and Central Africa. Similarly, kicking and head butting are also prominent in Central Africa. However, in Capoeira elements of wrestling, stick fighting, hand fighting, kicking and head butting are all incorporated. This demonstrates the fusion between different African cultural groups. Therefore it is not a single group that influenced the art of Capoeira, rather many cultural groups that came into contact. Although each of the elements had a different meaning in their specific origins, the meaning changed overtime as all forms were fused together to create a new art form. Therefore, there is no telling the exact origins of Capoeira since it has evolved from aspects of more than one cultural group.

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  40. On page 47, the narrator states that “the Angolan artist Albano de Neves e Souza came to Brazil in the 1960s, he was struck by the similarities in movements existing between capoeira in Brazil and n’golo he reported to have seen in Southern Angola.” Thus syncretism must have occurred, as Brazilian dance music adopted African forms. Also the reading states, “Like their Brazilian cognate capoeira, they are already creole developments (55).” The author directly states that creolization, a synonym for syncretism, occurred in this country with regards to capoeira. The accounts in Trinidad of “African mystique and spirituality surrounding stickfighting “ demonstrate the African influences in the Carribean, and the fact that the fighters were called bois men shows French influence, as “bois” means wood in French (58).” It is interesting to note that n’gola was adopted in Brazil as a “weapon of attack and defense (50).” Though the dancing style continued, its use transformed. Now dance became a weapon. That’s extremely interesting, considering that dance and violence do not normally seem to be associated with one another. In fact, dance is normally associated with passivity and daintiness.

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  41. Vanessa Rendon
    Black Musics in Latin America
    2/15/11

    Although slavery brought inhumane work conditions, discrimination, and poor living for Africans, it did not stop them from enjoying a social life to a certain extent. With a social life came recreational activities such as dance, fighting, and religious rituals. More specifically, capoeira emerged as a martial art/dance derived from the relationship between batuque, candomblé, samba, and capoeira itself. It expresses a form of creolization, an evolution of African elements blending with characteristics of other cultures, as it developed from the numerous adaptations slaves acquired during their time in Caribbean and American plantations. In addition, because slaves in plantations originated from different parts of Africa, they brought along with them distinct fighting techniques, which eventually led to the birth of capoeira (the exact origin of this dance is unknown; however, combat dances like ladjia, maní, and batuque probably had an influence on the development of capoeira). African combat games such as capoeira served multiple social functions, including the “self-affirmation of slaves and freed persons,” slave deception and resistance, and a means of social control utilized by slave owners. Moreover, combat games were used for group identification, male rank order, settling quarrels, proving one’s honor, winning a prize, or celebrating a ritual such as puberty. Not only does capoeira have influences from different African tribes, but also it is shaped by Portuguese influences with the introduction of weapons, thus representing a kind of syncretism between African groups and the European colonists.

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